Psychology
Susan Clayton
Professor of Psychology, The College of Wooster
Carol D. Saunders
Director of Conservation Psychology, Chicago Zoological Society
Psychology is the scientific study of human thought, feeling and behavior. Ultimately it is devoted to both understanding human behavior and promoting human welfare. Psychologists employ a wide variety of methodological approaches, from observation, interviews, and surveys to hormonal assays and brain scans. Although most study humans, there is a strong and well-established history of research on animals, typically premised on the belief that research on nonhuman animals can informs our understanding of humans.
There are many sub-disciplines within psychology, and each has something to offer the understanding of human-nature relationships and conservation practices. The following describes a few of the principal areas:
• Clinical psychology is the study of mental health and well-being, as well as abnormal behavior. Clinical psychologists are primarily concerned with understanding and ameliorating the causes of psychological distress. A growing literature supports the conclusion that exposure to natural environments has positive effects on mental health, and various forms of therapy have been developed that utilize interactions with nature or animals.
• Developmental psychology examines changes that are associated with growing older, principally in social behavior and cognitive capabilities. Although the bulk of developmental psychological research looks at development among children, there is an increasing attention to changes that occur during the adult years. Developmental psychologists have been looking at the significance of early exposure to nature on the development of love for nature as well as on the potential for empathy more generally.
• Cognitive psychologists examine information processing: the abilities and tendencies that affect the way people respond to information. Research suggests that cognitive processes, such as attention or problem-solving, can be enhanced by exposure to nature.
• Social psychology looks at ordinary interpersonal behavior, and how people are affected by the real or implied presence of others. Social psychologists study the ways in which social processes, such as norms, stereotypes, persuasion, and group processes, can facilitate or inhibit pro-environmental behavior.
• Physiological psychologists examine the physiological and neural processes that underlie behavior, and are alert to the subtle ways in which environmental toxins may have subtle effects on behavior as well as more obvious impacts on physical health or intelligence.
Although a wide range of theories influences psychological research, and there is no consensus about the causes of human behavior, some important concepts have wide currency. They include:
• Behaviorism - - Among other determinants, behavior is strongly affected by the consequences that follow that behavior. Crucially, these can be rewarding or punishing. Behaviors that are rewarded are more likely to be repeated than those that are not. The reward need not be concrete or directly experienced; vicarious rewards and punishments also have an influence. Rewards and punishments may be an unintended function of the way a situation is structured. If recycling cans requires more effort than throwing them away, because the trash cans are closer than the recycling bins, then there are some punishing consequences associated with recycling.
• Socialization - - People learn not only behaviors but also attitudes, values, and norms from those around them. These tendencies may then become habitual, so that people employ them without conscious thought.
• Development - - People change over time, and there are important experiences or influences that have a disproportionate impact early in development. Environmental toxins, for example, can be much more hazardous to the developing fetus or infant than to a mature adult. Experiences with nature early in life may form the basis for a lifelong attachment and sense of personal connection to nature.
Some psychologists have always paid attention to the natural environment, but this perspective has not been widely represented. The subfield of environmental psychology gained visibility and influence in the 60s with the environmental movement. Environmental psychologists, however, consider all aspects of the physical environment – including the built environment – in terms of their potential for influence on humans. Research on the natural environment initially focused on promoting pro-environmental behavior, such as recycling and reducing energy use. Encouraging sustainable behavior continues to be a major goal, but a growing number of research topics are being explored by both environmental and other psychologists. Examples include examinations of the personal and emotional significance of the environment, and the values and moral reasoning associated with nature. Recognizing the need for a prescriptive as well as a descriptive approach, psychologists have also been involved in environmental education and communication programs that attempt to inculcate knowledge about and appreciation for the natural environment.
Beginning around the turn of the 21st century, some psychologists began to self-identify as conservation psychologists. Conservation psychology is the scientific study of the reciprocal relationships between humans and the rest of nature, with the goal of encouraging conservation of the natural world. Like conservation biology, conservation psychology has a strong mission focus related to biodiversity conservation and environmental sustainability. Most of the research questions address the following outcome areas:
• How humans care about/value nature, with the goal of creating harmonious relationships and an environmental ethic.
• How humans behave towards nature, with the goal of creating durable individual and collective behavior change.
Research topics include studies of human-animal relationships, empathy, how caring about the natural world develops, the formation of an environmental identity, relationships between a psychological connection with nature and environmental sustainability, significant life experiences as precursors of environmental concern, development of a sense of place, moral reasoning in relation to the natural environment, risk perception, conflict resolution, the significance of direct nature experiences, and environmental attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviors.
Key Sources
Clayton, S., & Brook, A. (2005). Can psychology help save the world? A model for conservation psychology. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 5 (1), 87-102.
Gardner, G., & Stern, P. (2002). Environmental problems and human behavior. Boston: Pearson.
Saunders, C. D. & Myers, Jr. O. E. (Eds.) (2003). Special issue: Conservation psychology. Human Ecology Review, 10 (2).
Schmuck, P. and W.P. Schultz (eds.). 2002. Psychology of Sustainable Development. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Scott, B.A. & Koger, S.M. (2006). Teaching psychology for sustainability: A manual of resources. Supported by an Instructional Resource Award from the Office of Teaching Resources in Psychology. Available at:(http://www.teachgreenpsych.com/).
Professional Associations
American Psychological Association Division 34: Population and Environmental Psychology
Society for Human Ecology
International Association of Applied Psychology Environmental Psychology Division